AP Global Essay Samples For Students

AP Global Essay Samples For StudentsThere are many different AP Global Essay samples available online for use by students in college. These samples will help to illustrate some of the most common points of each essay type and help students in their preparation for AP exams.Students can download global essay samples from the USAP website. This website features essays on science, history, business, geography, and literature. Students can study these essays online and learn about different topics that they will encounter in the AP exam.The AP World History class, which is popular among college students, has four different chapters to examine. The first chapter is A Study of the Ancient World; the second chapter is A Study of the Modern World; the third chapter is AP US World History; and the fourth chapter is AP US World Civilization. Students can use the AP Global World History sample for practice and review. They can also download global essays online to use as practice for the AP exa m.Some students like to download global essays from the AP Global Writing Project. This project allows students to download and use essays written by other students. These essays were written using the Global Writing Test, which was developed by the AP U.S.A. The AP writing test assesses students' ability to write on a variety of topics.Other students choose to download global essays from the North American Sample Center. This site features essays from the United States of America, Canada, and Mexico. Students can download one essay or read through the entire collection.Students should always consult their AP teacher before downloading global essays from the internet. Students may find that their essays are not aligned with the content of the exam. These essays will need to be re-read by the student in order to make sure that they have not been amended or changed in any way. If students choose to download essays from the internet, they should always contact their AP teachers for gui dance before participating in a research paper or essay.In addition to the global essay sample, students can also access other AP global essay examples at their college bookstore. Bookshelves at libraries offer a number of different essay topics to help students prepare for the AP exam. Some of the most popular essays are from this year's world history, United States literature, and geography literature classes. Students can also browse books that feature literary essays written by famous authors, which often feature essays on world literature and topics in the United States.While taking an AP exam can be intimidating for many students, global essay samples can help make the exam more manageable. Students should be prepared for the exam and read multiple essay examples before writing their essays.

Topics to Write Research Paper on French History

Topics to Write Research Paper on French HistoryYou have studied, done research and you need to write research paper. Now, you may not know what subjects to write research paper on French history. While it may be easy to choose history of France in the World War II era, there are lots of other interesting topics that you can consider when writing your own essay.First, choose topics that you would enjoy or have researched before. This can also help you get a good grasp on the topic you choose. If you are like most people who find it tough to choose which subjects to write research paper on, I suggest you start by reading about your choice of subject. While reading, try to visualize yourself in front of the topic you want to write. Try to find the answers to questions such as what makes the topic interesting, why is it important to mention this topic at the beginning of your research and how would you answer this research question?The last thing that you should consider when writing a research paper on French history is your writing skills. Just like any other subject, if you are not able to make the topic interesting then it will be very difficult for you to get a good grade in your essay. You must learn to use effective essay writing skills that will make your topic interesting and will make it possible for you to be able to deliver an excellent research paper.Now that you have determined that there are indeed plenty of topics to write research paper on French history, it is time to start learning about the different subjects you can choose from. While there are some topics that may seem more interesting than others, it is still up to you which topic you will choose. Just remember that there are many options that you can choose from and you can just pick and choose the ones that you find interesting.Of course, topics to write research paper on French history are endless. There are many different subjects that you can choose from such as the French Revolution, N apoleon Bonaparte, world war, The Wars of the roses, American Revolution, Catholic and Protestant, European history, the Reformation, etc. You can go online and check the subjects that interest you and pick and choose which one fits your style of essay writing.Once you are done with your research, you can decide which topic that you want to write your essay on. Then you will just need to find out the sources that you need to cite. There are many resources that you can use but the best way to determine which ones are good is to find out which ones are written by successful writers.Learning how to research papers on French history is easy if you choose the right sources. You can find several resources on the Internet or in books. Just make sure that you are using credible sources so that you will be able to determine which source is reliable enough to cite properly.In conclusion, it is easy to choose topics to write research paper on French history. Just remember that you must researc h well before writing your essay and it is just as important to research well before writing your research paper on French history.

The Do This, Get That Guide On Sample Term Paper

The Do This, Get That Guide On Sample Term Paper Ruthless Sample Term Paper Strategies Exploited Do your homework even though the sample paper may have adequate information for writing your own, it's still suggested you do some research about it. You will have the ability to know the format you must follow when you read a sample term paper. You may use the sample for a template to compose your own paper. Great samples can permit you to easily master how to write term papers by yourself if used appropriately. Term Paper is among the most significant writing tasks. Term papers aren't the exact same as personal essays. Term papers account for the best proportion of your last grades, consequently, you should creatively use the ideas presented in the sample term paper to be able to create a piece that's unique for the best scores. They are among the most common essay types you need to handle. Ability to compose decent term papers is crucial for each and every student. There are lots of citations formats that are used for formatting academic papers in addition to scholarly term papers. Use the proper guidelines There are unique guidelines to writing a term paper and it's important that you follow them. It's quite helpful to go through a good example term paper, or two, before you commence writing your own, especially, if they're related or have similar topics. Nowadays it isn't difficult to receive a term paper on the web, because there are great number of services, which supply such opportunities. To start with, the medical care research papers topic must be somewhat appealing. Whenever you choose to ask us for expert help, don't hesitate to speak to our support managers. Ordering Examples of Term Papers Online Just since there is not anything wrong with getting tutorial help, there isn't anything wrong with seeking research help. Introducing Sample Term Paper Therefore, since you can see, it is truly worthwhile to check through samples. These samples will provide you with more insights about a sample term paper and links to refer to to be able to discover the best. Otherwise, you can elect for samples above in addition to check our tips. There are lots of samples featuring different styles and they'll enable you to use the most suitable style for your assignment. Therefore, it is possible to always read and reread an appropriate sample to boost your writing. Knowing the content of your paper will assist you in deciding upon the ideal sample to use. Try to remember that the sample will just offer guidance and not content for the paper, and that means you must know well in advance what you would like to handle. Much like in books advertised online, only certain parts of the paper is going to be exposed. From a good example term paper, you are able to learn many essential things. The major body of the expression paper could possibly be roughly 5 pages like main research points. A good example of term paper is the very best way to begin with your writing. Sample term papers ought to be strictly weighed side by side with the matter of plagiarism. Getting the Best Sample Term Paper Students are encouraged to begin considering the subject of their professional paper by the conclusion of their very first semester in the master's program. I n addition, they will need to integrate their knowledge across courses. Bear in mind that many of students might have to gain from your term paper. With a fantastic essay, a student pursuing biology has the capacity to execute well in school leading to better grades. You may also check on the standard of the greatest topic for term paper to get to understand the sort of professional services that we're speaking about. Every examples term paper, at our website, is intended to underline the high degree of professionalism our writers have and to clearly show their proficiency. Write without plagiarism Plagiarism is just one of the mistakes that lots of students as they might lack the most suitable skills for writing a superb paper.

Awareness For Mental Health Illnesses - 1526 Words

My goal for this project was to raise awareness for mental health illnesses. I wanted to bring this sensitive, yet common, issue to light. The subject of mental illness is unfortunately a taboo in many cultures and those who suffer from the extreme cases are ignored or they do not receive the proper treatment. Our community unfortunately struggles with stigma related to mental illness and disclosure of such a sensitive topic. I wanted to get the students of AIS/ACP to understand that mental illnesses are very common in our community and we should always help those suffering. As of March 2014, I attended a 4 weekend, 16-hour course for Youth Mental Health and got certified in Mental Health First Aid. I have been trained to provide initial help to young people experiencing mental health problems such as depression, anxiety disorders, psychosis, and substance use disorders. I was very fortunate to have Sr. Nassiba Cherif as my instructor and I stayed in touch with her even after the program. I was very interested in mental health, hence why I took the course. The course encouraged me to continue on the road of mental illnesses, and since I am already a certified first aider, I wondered why not spread my knowledge and raise awareness on this matter? As my sophomore year started, I was a tad confused about MYP as a whole, but thanks to Sr. Karina and Ms. Duso, they informed me about everything and in no time I started gathering information and writing in my journal. As I wasShow MoreRelatedThe Media Influences Public Attitude Essay1500 Words   |  6 PagesThe media, who influance the publics attitudes towards issues such as the mental health stigma, have the ability to determind individuals perceptions and opinions on important matters due to the way they present the information. 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He declared: Nearly 44 million American adults, and millions of children, experience mental health conditions each year, including depression, anxiety, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and post-traumatic stress. This month, we renew our commitment to ridding ourRead MoreThe Effects Of Bipolar Disorder On Individuals, Families And Society1109 Words   |  5 PagesMental illness is a leading cause of disability in Canada. All Canadians are likely to be indirectly affected through a mental illness in a family, friend or colleague. Statistics showed that 1 in 5 Canadians experiences a mental health or addiction problem. (Mental Illness and Addictions: Facts and Statistics, n.d.). This report will be focusing on one of the more common mental illness — bipolar disorder. 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Deinstitutionalisation in the 1950s led to community-based mental health and in turn brought a real but hidden issue of mental health into the visibility of the larger public sphere. Mental illness was a topic that was mostly treated only by individuals’ families and kept as a priva te matter and was off limits to outsiders apart fromRead MoreThe Stigma Of Mental Health Care Essay1711 Words   |  7 PagesMental health issues have been an ongoing hot topic in this country for over a century. Though many strides have been made to increase awareness and lessen the stigma, there continues to be a barrier to mental health care, especially for our nations’ youth and young adults. 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The paper will discuss my thoughts on mental illnesses as well as what exactly a mental illness is. I will begin telling where some of the stigma of someone suffering with a mental illness stems from. I will talk about how the media such as newspapers and national advertisements play a role in this stigma. I will give insight on some of the causes that may contribute

Does the Rome Statute Empower Individuals or Organisations to Trigger the Iccs Jurisdiction free essay sample

By looking at the provisions of the Rome Statute, the International Criminal Court founding treaty, this paper analyses the role of individuals and organisations in the functioning of the ICC. It argues that, although the ICC’s Prosecutor may decide to open an investigation, acting under his proprio motu powers, on the basis of communications and information he has received from them, individuals, groups, intergovernmental or nongovernmental organisations play no role in triggering the ICC’s jurisdiction rather than providing the mere communications and information on crimes within the jurisdiction of the ICC. I. Introduction The latest UN Report, purportedly written by a Group of Experts (GoE), is one of the sources that recently made the headlines about the DR Congo security crisis. In the report, the so-called Group of Experts submits that the Government of Rwanda has been assisting renegade soldiers (M23) in the recent rebel uprising in Eastern DRC through the provision of material and financial support. 2 1 2 The author of this paper graduated with a Master’s Degree from the University of Cape Town (UCT), where he specialised in Criminal Justice. He is currently serving as an Assistant to National Prosecutors in the Office of the Prosecutor General of Rwanda. His research interests include International Criminal Law, International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights Law. UN ‘The UN Report on DR Congo: A Response from Rwandan Scholars’ available online at http://www. allafrica. com, accessed on 17 October 2012 and MINAFFET, ‘Rwanda’s response to the allegations contained in the addendum to the Un Group of Experts interim report’ available online at http://www. minaffet. gov. rw accessed on 30 July 2012. Does the Rome Statute empower individuals or organisations to trigger the jurisdiction of the ICC? 2|2012 The story of an internal UN report, concluding that Rwanda was providing material support to the M23 rebels in the DRC, was broken for the first time by BBC on 28 May 2012. 3 It was triggered in different newspapers inter alia, New York Times and Financial Times. 4 Following that report, individuals and associations from Congo and opponents of Rwandan Government filed the complaints to the ICC’s Prosecutor on Friday, 17 August 2012. They asked to pursue Rwandan leaders over the alleged involvement in the ongoing rebellion in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Accordingly, this situation raises the issue of whether the ICC may exercises its jurisdiction pursuant to the complaints filed to the ICC’s Prosecutor by individual persons or organisations. Before looking at this legal issue, it is important to talk about the ICC’s jurisdiction and its trigger mechanisms. II. Background to the ICC The post-World War II Nuremberg and Tokyo tribunals to prosecute Nazi and Japanese leaders for crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity established precedent for other ad hoc international courts and tribunals, such as the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia 5 and for Rwanda. 6 Additionally, the United Nations authorised the creation of a Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL) to prosecute those with the greatest responsibility for serious violations of international humanitarian law and domestic law committed in the territory of Sierra Leone since November 3 4 5 6 BBC ‘Rwanda supporting DR Congo mutineers’ BBC, 28 May 2012, available online at http://hubert. Fennor. com/post/2012/05/28/Rwanda-supporting-DR-Congo-mutineers, accessed on 27 July 2012. Wallis, William ‘Congo probes claim of Rwandan role in violence’ Financial Times, 29 May 2012, available online at http://www. ft. com/intl/cms/s/0/fd0d525a-a998-11e1-977200144feabdc0. html-axzz1wHAdo5xy, accessed on 27 July 2012 and Kron, Josh ‘UNReport Says Rwandans Recruited to Fight in Congo. ’ The New York Times, 28 May 2012, available online at http://www. nytimes. com/2012/05/29/world/Africa/unOsaysOrwandansOrecruit edOtoOfightOinOcongo. tml, accessed on 27 July 2012. On 25th May 1993, the UN Security Council Resolution 827 (1993) established the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY). It had its precursors in UN Security Council Resolution 752, which asked parties to respect humanitarian law; UN Security Council Resolution 771, which condemned ethnic cleansing and demanded access by international observers; and UN Security Council Resolution 780, which requested the UN Secretary General to establish a Commission of Experts to investigate alleged violations of humanitarian law. The UN Security Council Resolution 935 (2004) asked the Secretary General to establish a Commission of Experts to examine the allegations of genocide and grave violations of international humanitarian law in Rwanda. After its investigation, the Commission recommended that an international tribunal be established to address the crimes. On November 8, 2004, the Security Council, in Resolution 955, established the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR). Does the Rome Statute empower individuals or organisations to trigger the jurisdiction of the ICC? |2012 30, 1996. 7 Separate judicial mechanisms have also been set up for cases involving East Timor (Timor-Leste) and Cambodia. Further, the U. N. Security Council authorised the establishment of a Special International Tribunal for Lebanon in 2007, which began functioning in March 2009. These courts and tribunals are distinct from the International Criminal Court (ICC). While established by the UN Security Council to address all egations of crimes against humanity in various countries, these tribunals were casespecific, limited in jurisdiction, and temporary. By contrast, the ICC was established by multilateral treaty and is a permanent, international criminal tribunal. The Rome Statute which created the ICC entered into force on 1 July 2002 after ratification by 60 countries. 8 It was established to help end impunity for the perpetrators of the most serious crimes of concern to the international community, namely war crimes, crimes against humanity, the crime of aggression and genocide 9 if national authorities with jurisdiction are unwilling or unable to do so genuinely. 0 By ratifying the Rome Statute, the International Criminal Court’s founding treaty, a State agrees that it has the duty to investigate and prosecute the crimes included in the Rome Statute. 11 It also agrees that should it fail to do so, the ICC may open an investigation 12, if the situation fulfils all jurisdictional requirements. These requirements include the temporal (that the crimes in 7 8 9 10 11 12 The Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL), a hybrid international-domestic court based in Sierra Leone’s capital, Freetown, was set up jointly by the Government of Sierra Leone and the United Nations under Security Council Resolution 1315 (2000). There are, at this time of writing, 121 State parties to the ICC. See the ICC official website ‘The States Parties to the Rome Statute available online at http://www. icc cpi. int/en_menus/asp/states%20parties/Pages/the%2 0states, accessed on 10 November 2012. See the art. 5 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. The first review conference of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC), held between 31 May and 11 June 2011 in Kampala, ended with a major amendment incorporating a definition of crime of aggression into the Statute. The amendment will come into force a year after ratification of 30 State parties. However, the exercise of jurisdiction will only be possible after 1 January 2017, if States parties take such a decision at the next review conference. See art. 5(2), 8bis, 15bis and 15ter of the Rome Statute. See the art. 17(1) (a) of the Rome Statute. Art. 12 (1) of the Rome Statute. The Court’s Statute is based on the principle of complementarity, ‘a principle that ensures that the Court does not usurp the primary responsibility of states to deal with the crimes that also fall under the jurisdiction of the Court. ’ This implies that the ICC is a court of last resort. In the other words, the ICC’s effectiveness is subject to the unwillingness or ineffectiveness of national criminal systems. Quoted from Lynn Gentile ‘Understanding the International Criminal Law’ in Max du Plessis African Guide to International Criminal Law, ISS Publisher, Pretoria, 2008, p. 9. Does the Rome Statute empower individuals or organisations to trigger the jurisdiction of the ICC? 4|2012 question occurred after July 1, 2002 or after the date in which the Statute entered into effect for the territory in question) and the material (crimes against humanity, genocide, crime of aggression and war crimes). Further, the Court has jurisdiction only over te rritories and nationals of States parties, unless the situation comes to the attention of the Court through the United Nations Security Council. Although the ICC’s prosecutions have been praised by human rights advocates, the perception that the Court has focused on Africa and the ICC Prosecutor’s choice of cases to investigate have been controversial among leaders and commentators on the African continent. The ICC’s investigations in Africa have raised concerns over African sovereignty, in part due to the long history of foreign intervention on the continent. Some observers have praised the ICC’s investigations in Africa as a crucial step against impunity on the continent, but the ICC’s actions have also provoked debates over the court’s potential impact, its perceived prioritisation of Africa over other regions, its selection of cases, and the potential effect of prosecutions on peace processes. Notably, critics have accused the ICC of potentially jeopardising political settlements that may keep the peace in the pursuit of an often abstract justice. 13 Surprisingly, its selective justice has targeted so far only alleged criminal leaders who don’t serve Western interests on the continent. 4 To date, the Office of the ICC’s Prosecutor (OTP) has published the conclusions of its preliminary examination into alleged crimes committed in Iraq 15 and Venezuela 16 dismissing the cases on grounds that the statutory requirements needed to open an investigation had not been satisfied. However, the Office of the Prosecutor is currently investigating in seven African countries n amely, The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Uganda, the Darfur region of Sudan, Central African Republic (CAR), Kenya, Libya and Ivory Coast. This attitude 13 14 5 16 In its 2010 July Summit in Kampala, Uganda, African Union (AU) decided not to cooperate with the ICC and rejected the opening of an ICC liaison office in the Ethiopian capital, Addis Ababa; and criticises the conduct of the ICC Prosecutor on the basis that he â€Å"has been making egregiously unacceptable, rude and condescending statements in the case against President al-Bashir and other situations in Africa. See, Assembly of the African Union, ‘Decision on the Progress Report of the Commission on the Implementation of Decision Assembly/AU/Dec. 70 (XIV) on the Second Ministerial Meeting on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC),’ Assembly/AU/Dec. 296 (XV), Kampala, July 27, 2010, paras. 5, 8 and 9. See the cases of President Bashir of Sudan and Late President of Libya Muammar Moham med Abu Minyar Gaddafi. Lynn Gentile supra note 13, p. 111. Idem, p. 112. Does the Rome Statute empower individuals or organisations to trigger the jurisdiction of the ICC? 5|2012 has made many African leaders and analysts see in ICC, an international judicial instrument aimed at protecting only capitalist interests by targeting African leaders who are formally against these interests. Thus, this paper will look at the role of organisations in the functioning of the ICC, following the recent complaints filed to the ICC’s Prosecutor by different associations of Congolese people and the so-called opponents of the Government of Rwanda. This situation raises the issue of whether the ICC may exercise its jurisdiction pursuant to the referral of individual persons or associations. But, before examining this issue, it is worthwhile to look first, at the trigger mechanisms of the ICC’s jurisdiction. III. The trigger mechanisms of the ICCs jurisdiction Under the provisions of the Rome Statute, the ICC can exercise jurisdiction over crimes if one of the following conditions is met: (i)a State Party refers a situation to the ICC; (ii) the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), acting under Chapter VII, refers a situation to the ICC; (iii) a Country that is not a State Party to the Statute lodges a declaration pursuant to article 12 (3) accepting the jurisdiction of the Court and (iv)the ICC’s Prosecutor decides to open an investigation acting under his proprio motu powers, on the basis of communications and information he has received from individuals, groups, States, intergovernmental or non-governmental organizations. These are trigger mechanisms of the ICC’s jurisdiction. Thus, this section considers the above mechanisms of triggering the ICC’s jurisdiction. Further, it analyses situations which were referred to the ICC’s Prosecutor by way of each mechani sm. 1. State Party referral According to the art. 13 (a) of the Rome Statute, ‘the Court may exercise its jurisdiction with respect to a crime referred to in article 5 in accordance with the provisions of this Statute if: (a) [a] situation in which one or more of such crimes appears to have been committed is referred to the Prosecutor by a State Party in accordance with article 14†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ 17 17 Art. Article 14 of the Rome Statute states: (1) A State Party may refer to the Prosecutor a situation in which one or more crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court appear to have been committed requesting the Prosecutor to investigate the situation for the purpose of determining whether one or more specific persons should be charged with the commission of such crimes. (2) As far as possible, a referral shall specify the relevant circumstances and be accompanied by such supporting documentation as is available to the State referring the situation. Does the Rome Statute empower individuals or organisations to trigger the jurisdiction of the ICC? 6|2012 In the light of the provisions of art. 13 (a) and 14 of the Rome Statute, it is evident that State party referral is the main trigger mechanism of the jurisdiction of the ICC under the Rome Statute. By way of this referral mechanism, only State Parties to the Rome Statute may trigger the jurisdiction of the Court. In the first three years of the ICC, the Office of the Prosecutor has received three referrals from States Parties namely, Uganda, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and the Central African Republic (CAR), each referring situations in its own territory. The following sub-sections analyse briefly each referral. a) Uganda’s referral The Government of Uganda, a party to the ICC, referred ‘the situation concerning the Lord’s Resistance Army’ to the ICC in 2003. 18 The Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) is a rebel group that has fought for over two decades in northern Uganda. In October 2005, the ICC unsealed arrest warrants, the first issued by the Court, for LRA leader Joseph Kony and commanders Vincent Otti, Okot Odhiambo, Dominic Ongwen, and Raska Lukwiya. 9 The Prosecutor accused the LRA of establishing ‘a pattern of brutalisation of civilian’, including murder, forced abduction, sexual enslavement, and mutilation, amounting to crimes agai nst humanity and war crimes. 20 Kony is wanted for 12 counts of crimes against humanity, including murder, enslavement, sexual enslavement, rape, and â€Å"inhumane acts,† and 21 counts of war crimes, including murder, cruel treatment of civilians, directing an attack against a civilian population, pillaging, inducing rape, and the forced enlistment of children. The other LRA commanders are accused of crimes against humanity and war crimes. 21 None of the suspects are in custody. Lukwiya and Otti have reportedly been killed since the warrants were issued, while other LRA commanders are thought to be in neighboring countries. The Prosecutor is also reportedly investigating actions by the Ugandan military in northern Uganda. 18 19 20 21 Payam Akhavan, ‘The Lord’s Resistance Army Case: Uganda’s Submission of the First State Referral to the International Criminal Court’ (2005) 99 2 The American Journal of International Law 405-406. ICC Press Release, ‘Warrant of Arrest Unsealed against Five LRA Commanders’ 14October 2005, available online at http://www. icc-cpi. int, accessed on 12 November 2012. See the ICC Press Release supra note 19. Idem. Does the Rome Statute empower individuals or organisations to trigger the jurisdiction of the ICC? 7|2012 ) DRC’s referral The Democratic Republic of Congo government referred the situation of crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court allegedly committed anywhere in the territ ory of the DRC to the Prosecutor in April 2004. 22 Despite the end of a five year civil war in 2003 and the holding of national elections in 2006, DRC continues to suffer from armed conflict, particularly in the eastern regions of this country. The ICC has issued four arrest warrants in its first DRC investigation, which focuses on the eastern Congolese district of Ituri, where an interethnic war erupted in June 2003. 23 Two suspects namely, Thomas Lubanga Dyilo and Germain Katanga are in custody. Other two suspects namely, Bosco Ntaganda 24 and Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui 25 remain at large. A second investigation focuses on sexual crimes and other abuses committed in the eastern provinces of North and South Kivu. Two cases have been made public in connection with the Kivu’s investigation; one suspect was arrested in France in October 2010. 26 Another suspect remains also at large. 27 22 23 24 25 26 27 ICC’s Office of the Prosecutor Press Release, ‘Prosecutor Receives Referral of the Situation in the Democratic Republic of Congo’, 19 April 2004, available online at http://www. icccpi. int accessed on 23 November 2012. ICC ‘Situation in Democratic Republic of the Congo’ available online at http://www. icccpi. int/EN_Menus/ICC/Situations%20and%20Cases/Situations/Situation%20ICC%200104 /Pages/situation%20index. aspx, accessed on 11 December 2012. Bosco Ntaganda is allegedly criminally responsible under article 25(3)(a) of the Rome Statute for: Seven counts of war crimes: enlistment of children under the age of 15, conscription of children under the age of 15, using children under the age of 15 to participate actively in hostilities; murder, attacks against the civilian population, rape and sexual slavery, and pillaging; and Three counts of crimes against humanity: murder, rape and sexual slavery, and persecution. On 18 December 2012, Trial Chamber II of the International Criminal Court (ICC) acquitted Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui of the charges of war crimes and crimes against humanity. The Chamber ordered the Registrar to take the necessary measures to release Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui. Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui, a Congolese national, was charged with three counts of crimes against humanity and seven counts of war crimes allegedly committed in the context of an armed conflict in Ituri, during the attack against the Bogoro village on 24 Feb ruary 2003. On 12 October 2010, Callixte Mbarushimana, a Rwandan national in exile of the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR) militia, was arrested in France, where he was living as a refugee, following the ICC’ judges issuance of sealed warrant for the arrest of him on 28 September 2010. Sylvestre Mudacumura, Alleged Supreme Commander of the Forces Democratiques pour la Liberation du Rwanda (FDLR). The Pre-Trial Chamber II issued a warrant of arrest against him on 13 July 2012. Mudacumura is allegedly criminally responsible for committing nine counts of war crimes (attacking civilians, murder, mutilation, cruel treatment, rape, torture, destruction of property, pillaging and outrages against personal dignity), from 20 January 2009 to the end of September 2010, in the context of the conflict in the Kivus, in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Does the Rome Statute empower individuals or organisations to trigger the jurisdiction of the ICC? 8|2012 c) CAR’s referral The government of Central African Republic (CAR), a party to the ICC, referred the situation of crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court committed anywhere on its territory to the ICC Prosecutor in January 2005. 28 In this situation, ICC issued a sealed warrant of arrest against a DRC national, Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo. Bemba was arrested in Belgium in May 2008 and turned over to the ICC in July 2008. 29 In June 2009, a panel of ICC judges confirmed three charges of war crimes and two charges of crimes against humanity for alleged rape, murder, and pillaging. 0 The warrant alleged that as commander of the Movement for the Liberation of Congo (MLC), one of two main DRC rebel groups during that country’s civil war (1998-2003), Bemba had overseen systematic attacks on civilians in CAR territory between October 2002 and March 2003. Bemba’s MLC , based in the DRC’s north, allegedly committed these abuses after it was invited into CAR by the President Ange-Felix Patasse to help quell a rebellion. The rebellion, led by Francois Bozize, was successful, and Bozize took control of CAR in 2003. Bozize’s government then initiated the ICC referral. 31 The charges hinge on the question of command responsibility: the Prosecutor contends that Bemba personally managed the MLC, stayed in constant contact with combatants, and was well informed about the group’s activities in CAR. Bemba’s trial opened on 22 November 2010. 2. The UN Security Council referral Art. 3 (b) of the Rome Statute provides that ‘[t]he Court may exercise its jurisdiction with respect to a crime referred to in article 5 in accordance with the provisions of this Statute if: (b) [a] situation in which one or more of such crimes appears to have been committed is referred to the Prosecutor by the Security Council acting under Chapter VI I of the Charter of the United Nations†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ 28 29 30 31 ICC’s Office of the Prosecutor Press Release, ‘Prosecutor Receives Referral Concerning Central African Republic’, 7 January 2005, available online at http://www. icc-cpi. int accessed on 23 November 2012. Bemba had been the leading challenger to incumbent President Joseph Kabila in DRC’s 2006 presidential election, and was elected to the Congolese legislature in January 2007. He subsequently went into exile in Europe following armed clashes with security forces loyal to Kabila. ICC Pre-Trial Chamber II, ‘Decision Pursuant to Article 61(7)(a) and (b) of the Rome Statute on the Charges of the Prosecutor Against Jean Pierre Bemba Gombo’, 15June 2009, available online at http://www. icc-cpi. int accessed on 23 November 2012. Congressional Research Service International Criminal Court cases in Africa: status and policy issues (2011) Report for members and committees of congress, p. 24. Does the Rome Statute empower individuals or organisations to trigger the jurisdiction of the ICC? 9|2012 This provision empowers the UN Security Council to trigger the jurisdiction of the ICC. Certainly, the UN Security Council, through its mandate in the UN Charter pursuant to the Chapter VII, has always had a primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security. Indeed, it was through Security Council Resolutions, 827 and 955 respectively, that the ICTY and the ICTR were established. The UN Security Council’s mandated power to resolve conflicts through use of force gives its preeminence over all existing international mechanisms in matters related to armed conflict and international humanitarian law. It has always been clear, then, that the UN Security Council would have a key role in any evolving permanent criminal court. By way of this trigger mechanism of the UN Security Council referral, two situations have been referred to the ICC’s Prosecutor, namely, the situation in Darfur and the situation in Libya. President Omar Hassan al-Bashir is one of individuals sought by the ICC in these situations. He is accused of war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide in Darfur. 32 It is the first attempt by the ICC to pursue a sitting Head of State. 33 The case has drawn praise from advocates but inspired a backlash among African States, which were previously supportive of the Court. Like Libya, Sudan is not a party to the ICC, and the jurisdiction was granted through a United Nations Security Council resolution. ) The Situation of Darfur in Sudan In September 2004, the Security Council had established an International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur under Resolution 1564, maintaining that the Sudanese government had not met its obligations under previous Resolutions. In January 2005, the Commissi on reported that it had compiled a confidential list of potential war crimes suspects and strongly recommended that the Security Council refer the situation to the ICC. 34 In 2005, the UN Security Council referred the situation in Darfur to the ICC Prosecutor. Following the referral, the ICC Prosecutor received the document archive of the Commission of Inquiry and the Commission’s sealed list of individuals suspected of committing serious abuses in Darfur, though this list 32 33 34 Decision on the Prosecutor’s application for a warrant of arrest against Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir No ICC-02/05-01/09-1 of 4 March 2009, unreported. Available online at http://www. icc-cpi. int, accessed on 11 December 2012. Idem. UN Report of the International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur to the United Nations Secretary-General pursuant to Security Council Resolution 1564 of 18 September 2004 (2004) available online at http://www. un. org , accessed on 10 December 2012. Does the Rome Statute empower individuals or organisations to trigger the jurisdiction of the ICC? 10|2012 was not binding on the selection of suspects. The Office of the Prosecutor initiated its own investigation in June 2005. The Sudanese government also created its own special courts for Darfur in an apparent effort to stave off the ICC’s jurisdiction; however, the courts’ efforts have been widely criticized as insufficient. On 31 March 2005, the UN Security Council, acting under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, adopted Resolution 1593 (2005), which referred reports about the situation in Darfur, Sudan to the ICC Prosecutor. Currently, three warrants of arrest have been issued against officials of Sudan. Among the suspects of the crimes committed in Darfur, there are Ahammad Muhammad Harun (Ahmad Harun) 35, Ali Muhammad Ali Abd-Al-Rahman (Ali Kushayb) 36 and the current President of Sudan, Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir (Omar Al Bashir). On the side of the rebel movements, there are Bahar Idriss Abu Garda 37, Abdallah Banda Abakaer Nourain 38 and Saleh Mohammed Jerbo Jamus. 39 b) The situation in Libya The situation in Libya was referred to the ICC Prosecutor by the United Nations Security Council, through the unanimous adoption of Resolution 1970 on 26 February 2011. On 3 March 2011, the ICC Prosecutor decided to open an investigation and requested, on 16 May 2011, the issuance of the arrest warrants. On 27 June 2011, following the Prosecutor’s request, the Pre-Trial Chamber I issued three warrants of arrest respectively for Libyan leader, late Muammar Mohammed Abu Minyar Gaddafi, his eldest son Saif Al-Islam Gaddafi and Abdullah Al? Senussi who was the head of military intelligence in Libya (and Gaddafi’s brother in law). All three are accused for crimes against humanity (murder and persecution) allegedly committed across Libya from 15 February 35 36 37 38 39 The former Minister of State for the Interior of the Government of Sudan and the Minister of State for Humanitarian affairs of Sudan. He is currently Governor of South Kordofan region of Sudan since his appointment in May 2009. See ICC ‘Information sheet on the case No ICC-02/05-01/07 Prosecutor v. Ahammad Muhammad Harun (Ahmad Harun) and Ali Muhammad Ali Abd-Al-Rahman (Ali Kushayb), available online at http://www. icc-cpi. nt [Accessed 01 September 2011. He is the so- called leader of the Janjaweed Militia since august 2003 to March 2004. See the the ICC’s information sheet, supra note 35. The Chairman and General Coordinator of military operations of the United Resistance Front The Commander in Chief of Justice and Equity Movement (JEM ). Ex-Chief of Staff SLA- Unity and subsequently incorporated in JEM. Does the Rome Statute empower individuals or organisations to trigger the jurisdiction of the ICC? 11|2012 2011 until at least 28 February 2011, through the State apparatus and Security Forces. 40 As it was previously argued, there are similarities with the situation in Darfur. In both cases the head of State of a non-party to the Rome Statute is subject to an arrest warrant after a Security Council referral. 3. Acceptance of the court’s jurisdiction This mechanism was designed to allow the non State Parties to the Rome Statute to trigger the jurisdiction of the ICC. Indeed, article12 (3) of the Rome Statute outlines the ways in which non States can accept the exercise of jurisdiction by the Court with respect to the situation in question. A non State party may consent to the court’s jurisdiction by means of a declaration. Such a declaration may be general, or subject to limitations regarding the crimes involved or the time period covered. This mechanism was conceived, as explained in the commentary to the draft statute, ‘to facilitate acceptance of the Rome Statute as a whole and in individual cases. ’ 41 In practice, this means that a State’s becoming party to the Statute for a specific period and specific crimes does not entail automatic acceptance of the court’s jurisdiction over all crimes listed in the Rome Statute. Ivory Coast is the first non State party which has accepted the jurisdiction of the ICC by means of this mechanism. Ivory Coast accepted the jurisdiction of the Court as of 19 September 2002 and submitted its declaration on 1 October 2003. Resultantly, the ICC is currently investigating in Ivory Coast for the crimes committed in this country. The former President Laurent Gbagbo is currently in custody. Laurent Gbagbo allegedly bears individual criminal responsibility, as indirect co-perpetrator, for four counts of crimes against humanity: a) murder, b) rape and other sexual violence, c) persecution and d) other inhuman acts, allegedly committed in the context of post-electoral violence in the territory of Cote d’Ivoire between 16 December 2010 and 12 April 2011. 40 41 ICC’s Press Release ‘ICC Prosecutor: Gaddafi used his absolute authority to commit crimes in Libya’ 16 May 2011, available online at http://www. icc-cpi. int/Menus/Go? id=1365e3b78152-4456-942c-a5cd5a51e829lan=en-GB, accessed on 03 December 2012. Rebecca Russell International Criminal Court: Finding justice for victims, ending impunity for perpetrators, World Vision Publications, California, 2002, p. 20. Does the Rome Statute empower individuals or organisations to trigger the jurisdiction of the ICC? 12|2012 Further, the ICC issued under seal the warrant of arrest against Simone Gbagbo, the former first lady of Ivory Coast on 29 February 2012. The warrant was unsealed 22 November 2012. 42 Simone Gbagbo allegedly bears individual criminal responsibility, as indirect co-perpetrator, for four counts of crimes against humanity: a) murder, b) rape and other sexual violence, c) persecution and d) other inhuman acts, allegedly committed in the context of post-electoral violence in the territory of Cote d’Ivoire between 16 December 2010 and 12 April 2011. 4. Referral by the Prosecutor acting Proprio Motu Art. 3 (c) of the Rome statute empowers the Prosecutor of the ICC to trigger the jurisdiction of the ICC. The article states that ‘[t]he Court may exercise its jurisdiction with respect to a crime referred to in article 5 in accordance with the provisions of this Statute if: (c ) [t]he Prosecutor has initiated an investigation in respect of such a crime in accordance with article 15. ’ In the light of art. 13(c) and 15 of the Rome Statute, the Prosecutor may initiate investigations proprio motu on the basis of information on crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court. In this regards, the Prosecutor of the ICC, acting proprio motu, referred the situation in Kenya to the Court. Controversy within Africa has erupted over the ICC attempts to prosecute senior Kenyan officials in connection with that country’s post-election violence of 2007-2008 in which over 1,000 individuals were killed and a range of other abuses, including sexual violence, were allegedly committed.. 43 The Prosecutor’s request to open an investigation in Kenya was approved by ICC judges in March 2010. Kenya is a party to the ICC, but it is the first instance in which ICC judges have authorised an investigation based on a recommendation from the Prosecutor, as opposed to a state referral or U. N. Security Council directive. On 15December 2010, the Prosecutor presented two cases, against a total of six individuals, for alleged crimes against humanity. The Prosecutor has applied to ICC judges for summonses, rather than arrest warrants, stating that he believes summonses are sufficient to ensure the suspects’ appearance before the Court. The suspects named in the first case are William Ruto, 42 43 Warrant of Arrest for Simone Gbagbo No ICC-02/11-01/12, 29 February2012, available online at http://www. icc-cpi. int/iccdocs/doc/doc1344439. pdf, accessed on 11 December 2012. Mba Chidi Nmaju ‘Violence in Kenya: Any Role for the ICC in the Quest for Accountability? ’ (2009) 3 African Journal of Legal Studies 78 at 80. Does the Rome Statute empower individuals or organisations to trigger the jurisdiction of the ICC? 13|2012 Member of Parliament and former Minister of Education; Henry Kosgey, Minister of Industrialization; and Joshua Arap Sang, a radio journalist. Those named in the second case are Francis Muthaura, head of the public service, secretary to the Cabinet, and chairman of the National Security Advisory Committee; Uhuru Kenyatta, deputy prime minister and minister of finance; and Mohamed Hussein Ali, former commissioner of the Kenyan police. The suspects in the first case are associated with Prime Minister Raila Odinga, while those in the second case are associated with President Mwai Kibaki. Odinga has expressed support for ICC involvement, while Kibaki has criticized it and called for trials to be held within Kenya instead. Although the Republic of Kenya is a State Party to the Court and initially supported ICC engagement, some fear the prosecutions could be destabilizing. On 10 December 2012, Kenyan chief justice Willy Mutunga announced the establishment of a special division of the High Court to try cases stemming from the 2007-08 bloodshed, as well as other crimes under international law. The chief justice said the International Crimes Division was needed because Kenya’s security, stability and economy was ‘mortally threatened’ by international-scale crimes. 44 The new judicial division will employ the International Crimes Act, a domestic version of the Rome Statute which underpins the ICC. Kenya passed the act in 2009, but it has not so far been applied to crimes committed during the postelection violence, since it was not in force at the time. However, there has been a groundswell of support for a mechanism to deal with these crimes. These bring me to the analysis of the role of individual persons and organisations in the work of the ICC. IV. The role of individuals and organisations in the functioning of the ICC The International Criminal Courts founding treaty, the Rome Statute, provides that individuals or organisations may submit information on crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court. 45 These submissions are referred to as ‘communications’ or complaints to the Office of the Prosecutor (OTP). As the end of 2011, the Office had considered information on crimes from numerous sources including open sources and ‘communications. ’ 9,332 ‘communications’ 44 45 Simon Jennings, ‘Kenyan Chief Justice Announces Special Court’ available online at http://iwpr. net/report-news/kenyan-chief-justice-announces-special-court, accessed on 11 December 2012. Art. 15 of the Rome Statute. Does the Rome Statute empower individuals or organisations to trigger the jurisdiction of the ICC? 14|2012 were received pursuant to article 15 of the Statute, of which 4,316 were manifestly outside the jurisdiction of the Court. 46 As it was stated previously, Congolese and Rwandan groups opposed to the Republic of Rwanda asked the International Criminal Court to pursue Rwandan leaders over the so-called war crimes committed in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Indeed, these complaints may be considered as communications, as the Rome Statute does not specify what the communication should contain. The Office of the Prosecutor analyses all communications received and the extent of the analysis is affected by the detail and substantive nature of the information available. If the available information does not provide sufficient guidance for an analysis that could lead to a determination that there is a reasonable basis to proceed, the analysis is concluded and the sender informed. However, communications from individuals or organisations should not be confused with referrals from States Parties or the United Nations Security Council. In this regards, William Schabas points out that, International organisations, individuals [and] non-governmental organisations †¦ are given no formal recognition with respect to initiating proceedings. However, in practice, all of them are likely to establish contact with the Prosecutor and attempt to persuade him or her to take action. ’ 47 In accordance with Article 15 (2) of the Rome Statute, the duty of the ICC’s Prosecutor is to analyse information received on potential crimes, in order to determine whether there is a reasonable basis to proceed with an investigation. Unlike a national prosecutor, who may initiate an investigation on the basis of very limited information, the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court is governed by the relevant regime under the Rome Statute. Under this regime, his responsibility is to carry out a preliminary phase of gathering and analysing information, after which he may seek to initiate an investigation only if the relevant criteria of the Statute are satisfied. 48 46 47 48 OTP-ICC, ‘Communications, Referrals and Preliminary Examinations’ available online at http://www. icc-cpi. int/Menus/Go? id=da143d8f-eb36-4f87-9818-1a6891956160lan=enGB, accessed on 10 December 2012. William A. Schabas An introduction to the International Criminal Court, 2nd edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambrige, 2004, p. 120. OTP-ICC, ‘The response of ICC’s Prosecutor to Iraq communications’ 9 February 2006, available online at http://www. icc-cpi. int, accessed on 03 December 2012. Does the Rome Statute empower individuals or organisations to trigger the jurisdiction of the ICC? 15|2012 The Prosecutor is required to consider three factors. First, he must consider whether the available information provides a reasonable basis to believe that a crime within the jurisdiction of the Court has been or is being committed. 49 Where this requirement is satisfied, he must then consider admissibility before the Court, in light of the requirements relating to gravity and complementarity with national proceedings. 50 Third, if these factors are positive, he must give consideration to the interests of justice. 51 Systematic analysis of these questions can take time. Using the limited powers at its disposal in the analysis phase, the Office of the Prosecutor seeks to collect information until it is possible to determine that there is, or is not, a reasonable basis to proceed with an investigation in accordance with the criteria of the Statute. Where the requirements are satisfied, he submits to a Pre-Trial Chamber of the Court a request for authorisation to initiate an investigation. Where the requirements are not satisfied, he informs those who provided the information. From the above discussions, it is clear that individual persons or organisations, as it is the case of Congolese and Rwandan groups, are not empowered to trigger the ICC‘s jurisdiction. They may only provide communications and information to the Prosecutor of the ICC who has the duty to analyse these communications before taking further actions. V. Concluding remarks Under the provisions of the Rome Statute of the ICC, only States, the UN Security Council and the Prosecutor’s Office would be able to initiate proceedings before the Court. Pursuant to art. 14, a State could file a complaint alleging that crimes within the jurisdiction of the ICC have been committed if it is a party to the Statute. A complaint could be also filed by a non State party to the Statute which has also accepted the Court’s jurisdiction with respect to the particular crime. In each case, the Statute provides that the complaint shall, as far as possible, specify the circumstances of the alleged crime, the identity and whereabouts of the suspect and be accompanied by supporting documentation available to the Complainant State. 52 49 50 51 52 Art. 53 (1) (a) of the Rome Statute. Art. 53 (1) (b) of the Rome Statute. Art 53 (1) (c) of the Rome Statute. For more information about the interest of justice, see the ICC-OTP ‘Policy Paper on the Interest of Justice’ September 2007, available online at http://www. icc-cpt. int, accessed on 09/12/2012. Art. 14 of the Rome Statute. Does the Rome Statute empower individuals or organisations to trigger the jurisdiction of the ICC? 16|2012 For individuals and organisations in general, they are not formally recognised to initiate the ICC’s proceedings. They are only authorised to provide communications and information to the Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (OTP-ICC). This implies that, individuals and organisations cannot trigger the jurisdiction of the ICC in the form of States and the UN Security Council. Back to the complaints from Congolese groups and opponents Rwandan groups, it is clear that these complaints are simple communications and information which will be analysed by the ICC’s Prosecutor with possibility to be rejected because they do not meet the requirements of the Statute. 53 REFERENCES A. Schabas, William An introduction to the International Criminal Court, 2nd edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambrige, 2004, p. 120. Akhavan, Payam, ‘The Lord’s Resistance Army Case: Uganda’s Submission of the First State Referral to the International Criminal Court’ (2005) 99 2 The American Journal of International Law 405. Assembly of the African Union, ‘Decision on the Progress Report of the Commission on the Implementation of Decision Assembly/AU/Dec. 270 (XIV) on the Second Ministerial Meeting on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC),’ Assembly/AU/Dec. 296 (XV), Kampala, 27 July 2010. BBC ‘Rwanda supporting DR Congo mutineers’ BBC, 28 May 2012, available online at http://hubert. Fennor. om/post/2012/05/28/Rwanda-supportinDR-Congo-mutineers, accessed on 27 July 2012. Congressional Research Service, International Criminal Court cases in Africa: status and policy issues, Report for members and committees of congress, 2011. Decision on the Prosecutor’s application for a warrant of arrest against Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir No ICC-02/05-01/09-1 of 4 March 2009, unreported. Available online at http://www. icc-cpi. int, accessed on 11 December 2012. Gentile, Lynn ‘Understanding the International Criminal Law’ in Max du Plessis African Guide to International Criminal Law, ISS Publisher, Pretoria, 2008. 53 For more details about the requirements of the Statute, see art. 53 of the Rome Statute. Does the Rome Statute empower individuals or organisations to trigger the jurisdiction of the ICC? 17|2012 ICC ‘Information sheet on the case No ICC-02/05-01/07 Prosecutor v. Ahammad Muhammad Harun (Ahmad Harun) and Ali Muhammad Ali Abd-Al-Rahman (Ali Kushayb), available online at http://www. icc-cpi. int [Accessed 01 September 2011. ICC ‘Situation in Democratic Republic of the Congo’ available online at http://www. icc-cpi. int/EN_Menus/ICC/Situations%20and%20Cases/ Situations/Situation%20ICC%200104/Pages/situation%20index. aspx, accessed on 11 December 2012. ICC ‘The States Parties to the Rome Statute available online at http://www. icc cpi. int/en_menus/asp/states%20parties/Pages/the%2

The Cia Essay Example For Students

The Cia Essay CIA: The Black Sheep of the US GovernmentThinking in the philosophical terms of â€Å"good† and â€Å"evil,† nothing purely â€Å"good† can survive without the slightest taint of â€Å"evil,† and vice-versa. The same standard exists for everything. Just as you cannot always succeed by being purely honest, a government cannot hold itself together without committing it’s own personal rights and wrongs. The United States of America has protected its residents well in the past, and kept the appearance of a mild innocense; well, most of it, anyway. The Covert Intelligence Agency (CIA) is mostly swamped in its wrongs, though many have not even been proven. The CIA has been this country’s â€Å"yang† to protect the populace of the USA. CIA is an agency of the Executive Branch of the United States government. It was created by the National Security Act of 1947, which also unified the three military departments (the Army, Navy and Marines) unde r a secretary of defense. It replaced the National Intelligence Authority and the Central Intelligence Group. Its purpose is to keep the U.S. government informed of foreign actions affecting our nations interests. The agency gathers political, economic, and military information about more than 150 nations and evaluates it for other U.S. government agencies. The CIA employs many foreign agents to supply intelligence about their native countries. It can also gather intelligence by listening to foreign radio and television broadcasts. Other ways include: reading foreign printed material available to the public, using aircraft with cameras, and using satellites to take pictures. We will write a custom essay on The Cia specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The CIA works mostly by espionage, which is the act of spying on a country, organization, movement, or person. Using this method, the CIA evaluates and interprets information from its agents and researchers. It uses a lot of technical devices such as electronic eavesdropping equipment and also performs counterespionage. This prevents the theft of secret information and detects the presence of spies in the United States. Some think the history of espionage goes back to prehistoric times. The bible tells of Moses sending spies into Canaan. Frederick the Great of Prussia is credited with originating organized espionage. George Washingtons spies obtained intelligence and information during the Revolutionary war. The CIAs original job was primarily intelligence gathering, but when Communism started to spread, the National Security Council directed that the agency take part in political, covert, paramilitary, and economic operations. When the Korean War broke out, the CIA performed these operations, it also had additional requirements to support the combat forces. In 1950 and 1953, the CIA went through several changes. An Office of National Estimates was given the mission of projecting future developments. Overseas operations were placed in one directorate. Another directorate was in charge of all intelligence production and a third directorate included all support activities. During this period, up until 1961, the CIA was at the height of its cold war activity. It carried out continuous foreign intelligence, counterintelligence, political action, and propaganda.3 In 1955, Dwight D. Eisenhower signed a bill granting $46 million for the construction of a CIA Headquarters Building. The cornerstone of the building was laid on November 3, 1959.2 The CIA has played a big part in the U.S. controversy with Cuba. On April 17, 1961, the CIA, supported by Cuban exiles, invaded Cuba. It was known as the Bay of Pigs invasion. On the same day, the first employees moved into the completed CIA Headquarters Building. On Oct. 15, 1962, the Cuban Missile Crisis began. The CIA was the organization that discovered the Soviet-made nuclear missiles in Cuba. The missiles were capable of reaching most of the United States.2 Also in 1962, the CIA had a mission in Cuba called MONGOOSE. In this mission the CIA planned to destroy a railroad yard and bridge. It also persuaded a German ball bearing manufacturer to send reject bearings to Cuba so the machines that they were used in would malfunction. It also sabotaged new busses that were ordered by Cuba for its own use. The CIA also assisted others in assassination planning against Cuban President Fidel Castro.6Cuba is not the only foreign country that the CIA has carried out missions in. In Afghanistan, the CIA responded to the 1979 Soviet invasion. The CIA operated in conjunction with China. In Chile the agency worked to prevent Allende from being elected in 1958 and 1964. Allende was elected in 1970, but the CIA worked to stop his succession of power. In El Salvador a CIA-army unit, known as Seasp ray, tried to locate guerillas by tracking radio transmissions. Also in El Salvador, the CIA helped stop people from voting multiple times, making it easy for rebels to identify voters. It also worked between 1982-1984 to stop the election of National Republican Alliance party leader Roberto Aubuissin. In Guatemala the agency assisted in the successful 1954 coup against the government of Jacob Arbenz. In Iran the CIA recovered guided missiles and patrol boats with guided missiles on them. It also ran a mission to overthrow an Iranian leader in Indonesia, PM Mossagegh.6In 1975, there were several different committees organized for the purpose of investigating the actions of the CIA. All three of the committees were only temporary. They were disestablished after they gave their final report. On May 19, 1976, the Senate established a permanent Select Committee on Intelligence to carry out the oversight of the CIA. On July 14, 1977, the House of Representatives also established a perman ent Select Committee on Intelligence. This differed from the committee that the Senate established because this committee had oversight authority over all other intelligence agencies.2 The national intelligent effort is led by the Director of Central Intelligence (DCI). The DCI oversees all of the intelligence programs. The budget for all national intelligence activities is prepared by the DCI and is presented to Congress annually. These activities are focused and intended to support tactical military forces, and are funded separately in two programs within the Department of Defense. These two programs, the Joint Military Intelligence Program and the Tactical Intelligence and Related Activities aggression falls under the Deputy Secretary of Defense. Under the DCI is the CIA Executive Director. There are four directors under the Executive Director: the Deputy Director for Operations, the Deputy Director for Intelligence, the Deputy Director for Science and Technology, and the Deputy Director for Administration. The Deputy Director for Operations (DO) is also known as the clandestine service. The DO conducts covert operations and includes an estimated 1,800 to 2,000 case officers who oversee several thousand foreign agents overseas. The Deputy Director for Intelligence collects and analyzes information provided by all directorates. This includes all intelligence from CIA officers, satellites, and the world press. His department also tries to predict events in foreign countries and provide the president with a daily briefing. The Deputy Director for Science and Technology has four specific duties. They include: producing the toys of the spy trade, such as disguises, false documents, and secret radio transmitters, analyzing satellit e photos, intercepting foreign communications, and producing state-of-the-art espionage tools. The Deputy Director for Administration provides supplies and training, launders money, conducts background checks, debugs CIA offices, and analyzes specimens from foreign leaders to determine their health. .u93b713f1922a4a45664fadb789d614bb , .u93b713f1922a4a45664fadb789d614bb .postImageUrl , .u93b713f1922a4a45664fadb789d614bb .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u93b713f1922a4a45664fadb789d614bb , .u93b713f1922a4a45664fadb789d614bb:hover , .u93b713f1922a4a45664fadb789d614bb:visited , .u93b713f1922a4a45664fadb789d614bb:active { border:0!important; } .u93b713f1922a4a45664fadb789d614bb .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u93b713f1922a4a45664fadb789d614bb { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u93b713f1922a4a45664fadb789d614bb:active , .u93b713f1922a4a45664fadb789d614bb:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u93b713f1922a4a45664fadb789d614bb .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u93b713f1922a4a45664fadb789d614bb .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u93b713f1922a4a45664fadb789d614bb .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u93b713f1922a4a45664fadb789d614bb .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u93b713f1922a4a45664fadb789d614bb:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u93b713f1922a4a45664fadb789d614bb .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u93b713f1922a4a45664fadb789d614bb .u93b713f1922a4a45664fadb789d614bb-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u93b713f1922a4a45664fadb789d614bb:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Native Americans Persuasive EssayThe CIA has had problems with double agents. A double agent is an agent who is actually working for a foreign power, usually feeding false information to his case officer.7 In 1990, a CIA team went to Berlin to go through the records of the Stasi, the former East German intelligence service. CIA officers discovered that all but a few of the Stasis East German agents had been recruited as double agents by the Communist regime in East Berlin. In 1988, a Cuban named Felix Aspillaga told the Operations Directorate that almost every one of the agents that the CIA had recruited in Cuba was actually working for the Cubans and giving wrong informat ion to the Americans. One of the more recent cases of a double agent deals with Aldrich Ames. Ames was a spy for the CIA. He had a normal income and it seemed that he lived a normal life. It looked this way from the outside, but on the inside he was really working for the Soviet KGB. He was paid a total of $1.5 million by the Soviets, for his service. He deposited some of the money in his name and some if the money in his wifes name in banks in Virginia. He sold U.S. secrets to the KGB. He also gave them the names of all of the Soviets that the CIA hired as spies of its own. His actions started in the mid 80s and he worked undetected for nine years. He and his wife were finally arrested in the spring of 1994. If convicted they would both spend life in prison. The agency has had other problems and scandals too. In 1960 a Soviet missile shot down a U.S. spy plane that was taking photos of Soviet territory. Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev then canceled a summit meeting with President Dwight D. Eisenhower. During the Vietnam War, the CIA illegally spied on thousands of Americans who opposed the war. They did this by opening mail and using wiretaps and other illegal methods to get information.4 Investigations in the mid-1970s found that several CIA employees took part in the Watergate affair. The CIA has also taken a lot of heat for its many assassination attempts of five foreign leaders.1Today the CIA has many problems with its agents. It had a problem with an agent named Mark McFarlin. He knowingly allowed several shipments of cocaine enter the United States from Venezuela. In the mid-80s, agents were buying arms and shipping them back to the United States illegally and putting them up for sale. In Ghana, a CIA secretary betrayed the names of CIA agents to her lover. It cost the CIA $13 million to resettle the agents back in the United States. The CIA also had several agents betray the agency while spying in Iran.7 The latest scandal is the cover-up of papers containing information on the possible exposure of U.S. troops to chemical weapons during the Persian Gulf War. The CIA refused to talk to Gulf War veterans who have evidence of chemical agent detections and exposures. The pentagon is still looking into the investigation. They have named the Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Bernard Rostker, as the Gulf Illness czar.†Besides all of the technical equipment, the CIA has one unique way of gaining intelligence. It involves the paranormal and is called Operation Stargate. The program was started in the early 1970s. It consists of Psychics. The psychics predict activity of foreign countries. The program hit its peak in the late 1970s. Since the program began, the CIA has spent $20 million employing at least 16 psy chics. Joe McMoneagle pinpointed the locations of several Soviet submarines and the exact date on which it would emerge from its hiding spot. The CIA wants to discontinue the program, saying it is no longer effective, but supporters of the program say it is beneficial and that it is correct on 20% of its predictions. During the early 1950s and into the mid 1960s there were a number of unusual activities involving the CIA, The Canadian Government, and the American Government. It was a conspiracy. No one would ever guess that it was being supported by all three groups. During this time a number of experiments involving hallucinogenic, along with what some might consider inhuman methods of psychiatry, were performed on patients. This wasnt the end ofthe story. After three decades through endless court battles, a mysterious death of one of the worlds most famous psychiatrists/doctor, and numerous investigations, The CIA endedup being the most dominant player and winner of this international, yet mysterious case. The MKultra program emerged in 1953. It dealt with drugs and counter-drugs involved in research and development. MKultra immediate inspiration came from confessions made atStalins show trials and a public confession of Cardinal Mindzenty of Hungary on February 3, 1949. He showed signs that ma de the impression of being broken down.† As a result of theses incidentsthe CIA was interested in the reason behind all this. Another factor was the Korean War. During the war, US servicemen made radio propaganda which broadcasts for The Soviets. Behind these broadcasts was the plea for an end with US involvement in the war. People were confessing to the most extraordinary charges in the communist courts. These events lead The Senior CIA Staff to suspect that The Soviets had mind control over the people. It was a time that the memory of The Nazi death camps was still in the air, and previously facing massive bombing, the best and brightest of the US Government thought that another totalitarian threat was about to emerge and they were facing new technical evils. From all this paranoia, MKultra was created. It showed that theCIA was in the context of its time, sharing the concerns of society, not removed from them These concerns were reflected in the following CIA analysis:Since the notorious Moscow trial of 1937, overt Russian judicial procedure has been noteworthy for the dramatic trials in which the defendants have exhibitedanomalous and incomprehensible behavior and confessions. Characteristics and manner of the defendants, and formulation and delivery of the confessions have been so similar in a large number of cases as to suggest factitious origin. Most noteworthy and incredible has been the recent confession of His Eminence Cardinal MINDZENTY while on trial in the Peoples Court of Hungary. The evident incongruities prompted this studyIt became apparent at the outset of the study thatthe style, context and manner of delivery of confessions were such as to be inexplicable unlessthere had been a reorganization and reorientation of the minds of the confessees. There is adequatehistorical experience to establish that basic changes in the functional organization of the humanmind cannot be brought about by the traditional methods of physical torture-these, at the most,achieve a reluctant, temporary yielding and, moreover, leave their mark upon the victim. Newer ormore subtle techniques had, therefore, to be considered . . a. Psycho surgery: a surgical separation of the frontal lobes of the brain. b. Shock method: (1) electrical (2) drug: metrazol, cannabis, indica, insulin, cocaine. c. Psychoanalytic methods: (1) psychoanalysis (2) narcoanalysis and synthesis (3) hypnoanalysis and synthesis. d. Combinations of the foregoing. For the next twenty years, under several of names, the CIA began research on controlling human behavior. The first being Project Bluebird. During WWII the military hospitals discovered that soldiers and patients intend to speak freely when they where under the influenceof anesthetics. For this reason the OSS used cannabis in their drug experiments. The first field test was performed on an underworld figure known as August Del Gracio, a member of Charles LuckyLuciano crime family in New York. He was given cigarett es heavily laced with cannabis. As he smoked, they questioned him about underworld activities. Del Gracio and the OSS were also involvedin an attempt to arrange and prepare for an invasion of Sicily, and the protection of the New York docks against enemy sabotage. Directed by Shefields Edwards (head of the CIAs Office of Security) the project goal was to determine whether a team consisting of psychiatrists, lie detector experts, hypnotists, and technicians could get better results with drugs over other means of interrogation. A month later, during the Korean War, the team worked in Tokyo to investigate four people suspected to be double agents. The results were considered to be successful. In October 1950 the team worked on captured North Koreans. When Bedell Smith became DCI, Project Bluebird goals were to develop human robots. This experiment was called Project Artichoke. It was carried out by CIAs Office of ScientificIntelligence. Its intentions were to exploit along operational lines, scientific method and knowledge that can be utilized in altering attitudes, beliefs thought process and behavior patternsof agent personnel Due to the sensitivity of the techniques carried out and substances used, this was a highly confidential project. Within a short time, there were rumors in the Dictorateof Plans about double agents that were killed in the prior MKULTRA experiments. Both projects were conducted in Germany, Far East, and the United States. In April 1953, under the direction of Allen Dulles and Richard Helms, the program began to involve biological and chemical materials. At the time, Dr. Harris Isabell was head of the drugtreatment center in Lexington, Kentucky, where he carried out numerous experiments on drug addicts. The drugs used in the experiments were supplied by the CIA. Here the testees whereinformed of what exactly was involved in the research and their consent was obtained ( no where else did this happen). At the time LSD particularly interested the agency. The longterm effect of this drug was not known. There was one case where the doctor kept seven men on LSD for 77 days. It was considered to be even too much for acid heads of the 1960s to handle! The object of the experiments conducted were to see if it was possible to control people for a long period of time, from faraway distances. The spectacle of peoples behavior being controlledin Soviet show trials indicated that the Russians had perfected such techniques The experiment wasnt usually successful because the patients that were used were previously hardened drugaddicts. So as in 1953 normal people were used. Dr. Sidney Gotlieb was currently head of TSS at the time, where he reported to Frank Wisner and Richard helms in the Dictorate of Plans. He was mainly responsible for coordinating the MKultra programs. In 1953 numerous projects under MKULTRA came into existence and were under Gotliebs authority. There was Project Chatter (1947), a navy program attempted to test an d identify truth drugs, due to the report of the amazing results obtained by the Soviets. MKNaomi (1952), was designed for the production of biological chemical weapons and substances for the agencys use. MKDelta (1952) was the procedure for governing the use of MKultra material abroad. In all there were 149 MKULTRA subprojects, 33additional subprojects that were solely funded by MKULTRA itself. The 33 additional subprojects had nothing to do with behavioral modification, toxins, or drugs. By then MKULTRA indicated how the agency was ready, willing and prepared to face the world on a different level. There was one of the subproject that was considered to be humorous, Subproject #94 involving cats, dogs, and monkeys. These animals were used as guided bombs and microphones foreavesdropping. An audio device was considered inefficient and didnt work effectively enough. They acted like cameras and would record what they saw and the results were sometimes incomprehensive. An example would be at cocktail parties where these devices would record everything. Therefore, the outcome was fuzzy. So the CIA began to invest a lot of money and time on training a cat. This cat was cut open and a microphone would be inserted in its cochlea and an antenna in its tail. At first the cat would wander off every time it got hungry, so they split the cat in half once again and wired it in order for it not to have the hunger sensation. Finally when they released it and instructed in to listen into two men talking in the park, it got ran over as it crossed the street. The CIA is not completely bad. It does a lot of good for our nation. During the Persian Gulf War, it gained intelligence for the UN forces. It gained intelligence with the help of more than 200 Iraqi foes of Saddam Hussein. The CIA helps the United States gain national economic security. It does this by spying on the economic performance of other countries. Today it is looking more at Japanese and German product designs al ong with the designs of military weapons. Some people think this kind of spying is good and others think it is wrong. In 1995, France accused the United States of gathering economic and political secrets. The CIA responded by relocating these agents. The State department called the French charges unwarranted, this is because the French have been known for their own industrial and economic espionage. .u830009617970bc4179b0cc37177a025e , .u830009617970bc4179b0cc37177a025e .postImageUrl , .u830009617970bc4179b0cc37177a025e .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u830009617970bc4179b0cc37177a025e , .u830009617970bc4179b0cc37177a025e:hover , .u830009617970bc4179b0cc37177a025e:visited , .u830009617970bc4179b0cc37177a025e:active { border:0!important; } .u830009617970bc4179b0cc37177a025e .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u830009617970bc4179b0cc37177a025e { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u830009617970bc4179b0cc37177a025e:active , .u830009617970bc4179b0cc37177a025e:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u830009617970bc4179b0cc37177a025e .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u830009617970bc4179b0cc37177a025e .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u830009617970bc4179b0cc37177a025e .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u830009617970bc4179b0cc37177a025e .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u830009617970bc4179b0cc37177a025e:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u830009617970bc4179b0cc37177a025e .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u830009617970bc4179b0cc37177a025e .u830009617970bc4179b0cc37177a025e-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u830009617970bc4179b0cc37177a025e:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Julius Ceaser: Brutus Character Analysis EssayThe CIA, despite its downfalls has constantly been helpful to the security of the United States. The information that it has gathered has benefitted us in peace as well as during war. It is a great asset to our national and economic security. It will continue to provide our nation with the intelligence it needs in the future. As long as the United States stands, the CIA will be a necessary â€Å"evil† to stabilize â€Å"pure† nature of the rest of the Government. BibliographyMagazinesMcCurdy, Dave. â€Å"Glasnost for the CIA.† Foreign Affairs, Jan/Feb 1995: 125-40Smowle, Jill. â€Å"Double Agent.† Time, 7 March 1994: 28-37Vistca, Gregory. â€Å"Psychics and Spooks.† Newsweek, 11 December 1995: 50. Walcott, John and Duffy, Brian. â€Å"The CIA’s Darkest Secrets.† U.S. News World Report, 4 July 1994Waller, Douglas. â€Å"Halt! Friend or Foe?† Time, 6 March 1995: 50. Internetâ€Å"Key Events in CIA’s History.† Available http:http://www.cia.events. Venzke, Ben. â€Å"CIA.† Available http:http//alt.politics.org.cia , 1994EncyclopediaColes, Harry. â€Å"CIA.† Encyclopedia Americana. 1983 ed. Glickman, Harvey. â€Å"CIA.† World Book. 1996 ed. Kirkpatrick, Lyman. â€Å"CIA.† Encarta. 1994 ed. Wheeler, Douglas. â€Å"Espionage.† World Book Multimedia Encyclopedia. 1996 ed. History Essays

How to Convert Cubic Meters to Cubic Feet

How to Convert Cubic Meters to Cubic Feet Cubic feet and cubic meters are both measures of volume, the former in the imperial and U.S. customary system, and the latter in the metric system. The conversion is most easily explained with an example problem: How many cubic feet of space is enclosed by a box measuring 2m x 2m x 3m? Solution Step 1: Find the volume of the box Volume in m ³ 2m x 2m x 3m 12 m ³ Step 2: Determine how many cubic feet are in 1 cubic meter 1 m 3.28084 ft (1 m) ³ (3.28084 ft) ³ 1 m ³ 35.315 ft ³ Step 3: Convert m ³ to ft ³ Set up the conversion so  that the desired unit will be canceled out. In this case, we want ft ³ to be the remaining unit. Volume in ft ³ Volume in m ³ x 35.315 ft ³/1 m ³ Volume in ft ³ 12 m ³ x 35.315 ft ³/1 m ³ Volume in ft ³ 423.8 ft ³ Answer The volume of space, in cubic feet, enclosed by a box measuring 2m x 2m x 3m is 423.8 ft ³ Cubic Feet To Cubic Meters Example Problem You can work the conversion the other way. As a simple example, convert 50.0 cubic feet to cubic meters. Start with the conversion factor: 1 m3 35.315 ft3 or 1 ft3 0.0283 m3 It doesnt matter which conversion factor you use, providing you set up the problem correctly. Volume in cubic meters 50.0 cubic feet x (1 cubic meter / 35.315 cubic feet) The cubic feet will cancel out, leaving cubic meters: Volume in cubic meters is 1.416 m3.